JOURNALISM AND SOCIETY

‘Civilization has produced one idea more powerful than the other – the notion that people can govern themselves. And it has created a largely unarticulated theory of information
to sustain that idea, called journalism. The two rise and fall together.’ Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel, The Elements of Journalism

The term journalism is defined below but needs clarification in relation to other similar terms. Sometimes reference is made to ‘the media’ or ‘mass media’, or possibly ‘news media’, thus to the entire ‘media system’ or a large sector of it. The word ‘press’ is also encountered as an alternative (also explained below) that usually serves as a more abstract and formal description of much the same set of activities. Additionally, ‘journalism’ is often used as if synonymous with ‘news’ or even with the ‘newspaper’.

Freedom of expression – sometimes known as free speech – has long been regarded as a fundamental right, essential to the realization of our full human potential, a foundation of other rights and freedoms and underpinning social and economic development. But freedom of expression needs public platforms that permit the exchange of information and ideas to be effective, hence the important role of the media in providing those platforms. In order to fulfil this function however, the media need to be independent of state or government control. This freedom from regulation in turn places an obligation upon journalists to behave ethically, hence the development of professional codes that deal with journalistic standards.

Evolution of the concept and practice of ‘free speech’ and ‘free press’

Freedom of speech—the right to express opinions without government restraint—is a democratic ideal that dates back to ancient Greece. In the United States, the First Amendment guarantees free speech, though the United States, like all modern democracies, places limits on this freedom. In a series of landmark cases, the U.S. Supreme Court over the years has helped to define what types of speech are—and aren’t—protected under U.S. law.

https://www.history.com/11958041-35f7-4d7b-956f-504b4803f884

The ancient Greeks pioneered free speech as a democratic principle. The ancient Greek word “parrhesia” means “free speech,” or “to speak candidly.” The term first appeared in Greek literature around the end of the fifth century B.C.

During the classical period, parrhesia became a fundamental part of the democracy of Athens. Leaders, philosophers, playwrights and everyday Athenians were free to openly discuss politics and religion and to criticize the government in some settings.

First Amendment

In the United States, the First Amendment protects freedom of speech.

The First Amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791 as part of the Bill of Rights—the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. The Bill of Rights provides constitutional protection for certain individual liberties, including freedoms of speech, assembly and worship.

The First Amendment doesn’t specify what exactly is meant by freedom of speech. Defining what types of speech should and shouldn’t be protected by law has fallen largely to the courts.

In general, the First Amendment guarantees the right to express ideas and information. On a basic level, it means that people can express an opinion (even an unpopular or unsavory one) without fear of government censorship.

It protects all forms of communication, from speeches to art and other media.

Flag Burning

While freedom of speech pertains mostly to the spoken or written word, it also protects some forms of symbolic speech. Symbolic speech is an action that expresses an idea.

Flag burning is an example of symbolic speech that is protected under the First Amendment. Gregory Lee Johnson, a youth communist, burned a flag during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas to protest the Reagan administration.

The U.S. Supreme Court, in 1990, reversed a Texas court’s conviction that Johnson broke the law by desecrating the flag. Texas v. Johnson invalidated statutes in Texas and 47 other states prohibiting flag burning.

When Isn’t Speech Protected?

Not all speech is protected under the First Amendment.

Forms of speech that aren’t protected include:

• Obscene material such as child pornography
• Plagiarism of copyrighted material
• Defamation (libel and slander)
• True threats

Speech inciting illegal actions or soliciting others to commit crimes aren’t protected under the First Amendment, either.

The Supreme Court decided a series of cases in 1919 that helped to define the limitations of free speech. Congress passed the Espionage Act of 1917, shortly after the United States entered into World War I. The law prohibited interference in military operations or recruitment.

Socialist Party activist Charles Schenck was arrested under the Espionage Act after he distributed fliers urging young men to dodge the draft. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction by creating the “clear and present danger” standard, explaining when the government is allowed to limit free speech. In this case, they viewed draft resistant as dangerous to national security.

American labor leader and Socialist Party activist Eugene Debs also was arrested under the Espionage Act after giving a speech in 1918 encouraging others not to join the military. Debs argued that he was exercising his right to free speech and that the Espionage Act of 1917 was unconstitutional. In Debs v. United States the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act.

Speech inciting illegal actions or soliciting others to commit crimes aren’t protected under the First Amendment, either.

The Supreme Court decided a series of cases in 1919 that helped to define the limitations of free speech. Congress passed the Espionage Act of 1917, shortly after the United States entered into World War I. The law prohibited interference in military operations or recruitment.

Socialist Party activist Charles Schenck was arrested under the Espionage Act after he distributed fliers urging young men to dodge the draft. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction by creating the “clear and present danger” standard, explaining when the government is allowed to limit free speech. In this case, they viewed draft resistant as dangerous to national security.

American labor leader and Socialist Party activist Eugene Debs also was arrested under the Espionage Act after giving a speech in 1918 encouraging others not to join the military. Debs argued that he was exercising his right to free speech and that the Espionage Act of 1917 was unconstitutional. In Debs v. United States the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act.

Freedom Of Expression

The Supreme Court has interpreted artistic freedom broadly as a form of free speech.

In most cases, freedom of expression may be restricted only if it will cause direct and imminent harm. Shouting “fire!” in a crowded theater and causing a stampede would be an example of direct and imminent harm.

In deciding cases involving artistic freedom of expression the Supreme Court leans on a principle called “content neutrality.” Content neutrality means the government can’t censor or restrict expression just because some segment of the population finds the content offensive.

Free Speech In Schools

In 1965, students at a public high school in Des Moines, Iowa, organized a silent protest against the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands to protest the fighting. The students were suspended from school. The principal argued that the armbands were a distraction and could possibly lead to danger for the students.

The Supreme Court didn’t bite—they ruled in favor of the students’ right to wear the armbands as a form of free speech in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District. The case set the standard for free speech in schools. However, First Amendment rights typically don’t apply in private schools.

Purpose of journalism in society and its role in the architecture of democracy

“The purpose of journalism,” write Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel in The Elements of Journalism, “is not defined by technology, nor by journalists or the techniques they employ.” Rather, “the principles and purpose of journalism are defined by something more basic: the function news plays in the lives of people.”

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The purpose of journalism is thus to provide citizens with the information they need to make the best possible decisions about their lives, their communities, their societies, and their governments.

When the House is sitting, the media attend the parliament in strength and the Parliamentary Press Gallery is usually crowded during Question Time. The main task of a parliamentary journalist is to select information about parliamentary debates and events which is of interest to their readers.
They present this information in such a way that enables Queenslanders to be aware of what decisions are being made in parliament.

Therefore the media play an important role in society as a source of information, but also as a “watchdog” or scrutiniser

Media has given political parties the tools to reach large numbers of people and can inform them on key issues ranging from policies to elections. In theory, media should be seen as an enabler for democracy, having better-educated voters would lead to a more legitimate government

The role of the press as ‘watchdog’ is a traditional characterisation of the role of the news media in particular. Biswas describes the media as ‘a watchdog of the society [monitoring] the activities of public administrations and other institutions and practices that directly and indirectly affect the public’.
This watchdog role can take many forms depending on the nature of the medium concerned, as well as on the state of democracy and development in a particular country. Essentially, this role is to provide information – to be the ‘eyes and ears’ of the public in monitoring what is happening in public life by reporting on daily events as they unfold.

When one thinks of the press as watchdog, one thinks of the press as reporting on the happenings of government. In and of itself ‘reporting on government’ is a huge task.
It involves reporting on the programmes and activities of the three branches of government

Economic issues can be as important as political ones; hence, a watchdog press also needs to report on economic developments and news. While these will often overlap with government-related reporting (for example, when covering issues such as interest rates, unemployment figures, gross domestic product figures, the budget, development projects or the use of international donor aid), this is not necessarily the case.

Role of information ethics

Information ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information, information technology, and information systems for personal, professional, and public decision making. For example, is it okay to download someone else’s intellectual property like pictures or music? Should librarians ever remove controversial books from the shelves or monitor users’ Internet searching? Should a scientist post the genome for the Ebola virus on the Internet?

Information ethics provides a framework for critical reflection on the creation, control, and use of information. It raises questions about information ownership and access to intellectual property, the rights of people to read and to explore the World Wide Web as they choose. Information ethicists explore and evaluate the development of moral values, the creation of new power structures, information myths, and the resolution of ethical conflicts in the information society (Capurro 2001).

If bioethics addresses living systems, then information ethics similarly covers information systems. Where bioethics evolved from medical ethics after World War II to engage the broader implications of societal changes such as informed consent and reproductive rights, information ethics grew out of the professional ethics traditions of librarians and early information professionals in order to describe and evaluate the competing interests that sought to control the information assets of a high-tech society (Smith 1997). Like other areas of applied ethics in science and technology, information ethics focuses on social responsibility and the meaning of humanity in relation to machines.

TOPICS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION
Case studies on a controlled press
Propaganda vs. journalism