HIS6/6: The Economy: Problems of control and development

A. Overview of Africa’s development in the first half of the 1990s

Africa’s development in the first half of this decade has been dominated by multiple transi-tions which, in some countries, often have run concurrently: from war to peace, from one-party rule to multi-party governance, from apartheid to non-racial democracy, from command economies dominated by govern-ments and sheltered from imports to free markets, private enterprise and more liberal trade.

In a few countries, the transition was unfortunately in the wrong direction: from rela-tive peace and stability to intensified civil war and even brutal genocide. As many as 20 million Africans were internally displaced within their countries or forced to seek refuge in other countries, fleeing conflict flashpoints. But, on the bright side, the transition to peace has been consolidated in several other countries. The great majority of African countries, however, have remained stable and largely at peace – a less dramatic reality that is usually over-shadowed by the more enthralling headlines generated by conflict situations. That the majority of countries remain at peace is a remarkable achievement in itself, in view of the mounting challenges that they have been facing.

To cope with these challenges, practically every African country that is not convulsed with conflicts has embarked on one transitional reform process or another. A number of coun-tries have replaced one-party rule with multi-party governance. No less than 30 interna-tionally observed elections have been organized in African countries in recent years. The first non-racial democratic election in the history of South Africa, in 1994, ushered in that country’s first non-racial government – the Government of National Unity, to guide the country through the transitional period to the year 1999. And almost all countries with an effective govern-ment have embarked upon fundamental macro-economic and sectoral reforms to boost economic performance on a sustainable basis.

Economic reforms to stabilize, restructure and transform African economies to make them more efficient and competitive have had attendant social costs. To cite one example, public sector restructuring has inevitably involved massive redundancies, though the pain has been ameliorated by retrenchment packages of benefits (e.g., severance pay, re-training opportunities, pension payments, subsidized credit lines for those able to go into self-employment, etc.). Another example is the loss of jobs that has been caused by the surge of imports due to more liberal trade policies, in the early years before African enterprises restruc-ture themselves and learn to cope with stiff external competition. The majority of African countries have been placed on a sounder macroeconomic footing than they have been in three decades. Countries are now in a better position to compete in international markets. The political climate is more hospitable and the economic policy environment is more conducive than at any time prior to the launching of reforms. African countries have began to attain the fundamental conditions needed to attract increased domestic and foreign savings and investments to underwrite a sustained economic recovery and accelerated growth. On the whole, it is not an exaggeration to say that Africa is poised to take off economically and resume sustained social development.

B. The economic and social situation in 1994-1995

Africa’s economic and social situation over the 1994-1995 biennium was a rather mixed picture. Encouraging news and sources of hope were intermingled with persisting trouble spots and problematic issues which will continue to demand policy makers’ close attention for years to come. Fuller details of economic develop-ments over this period may be found in the ECA documents Survey of Economic and Social Conditions in Africa, 1994-1995 and the Economic Report on Africa published respectively in 1995 and 1996.

On a provisional basis, ECA estimates that continental African economic output, measured at constant 1990 prices (in US dollars) grew by 2.2 per cent in 1995 and 1.6 per cent in 1994. Economic performance over the biennium showed a slight improvement over the preceding 1992-1993 biennium. Thus, on a continent-wide basis, per capita output shrank by 0.7 per cent in 1995, after declining by 1.3 per cent in 1994. Over the first half of the decade, from 1990 to 1995, it is estimated that African per capita GDP declined at an average annual rate of 2 per cent. On a more positive note, how-ever, a comparison of the five-year average and that of the last biennium indicates that a turn-around in economic growth is under way across the continent, even though economic growth remains vulnerable to climatic and external market conditions that are beyond Africa’s control, and even though it is still well below the rate of population growth.

Yet another promising indicator that African economies may have embarked on recovery is provided by a country-by-country breakdown of economic performance across the continent (table 1.1). The number of economies which recorded shrinking output has declined steadily over the 1990s to just three in 1995. The number of countries with economic growth rates exceeding population growth rates has shown an upward trend since 1992, reaching 26 in 1995. Similarly, the number of countries matching or exceeding the 6 per cent economic growth rate, which is recommended as a target in the United Nations New Agenda for the Development of Africa in the 1990s (UN-NADAF), has been increasing in the four years up to 1995.

TRADE, REGIONAL ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND INTEGRATION

With the coming into force of the Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Com-munity, considerable emphasis is being given to the strengthening of subregional and regional communities as vehicles for enhancing coopera-tion. Furthermore, there is the need to define the substantive areas for promoting cooperation and to prepare most African countries to under-stand and fully engage themselves in coopera-tive activities. Member States’ active involve-ment in regional cooperation require building internal competitiveness in areas such as trade and investment.

It was against this background that the thrust of the Commission’s work during the biennium 1994-1995 centred on the imple-mentation of the Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community.

Activities in the area of trade, regional economic cooperation and integration focused on:

(a) Strengthening regional economic communities both at the institutional and sectoral levels with emphasis on the rationaliza-tion, harmonization and coordination of their activities;

(b) Revitalizing African domestic and external trade;

(c) Strengthening intra-African trade;

(d) Strengthening institutional capacity to accelerate the process of monetary and financial integration; and

(e) Tourism and Africa’s development.

(a) Strengthening regional economic com-munities

Regional economic communities are the building blocs for the process of regional inte-gration. This calls for the strengthening of the capacities of the existing subregional economic communities, such as Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) and the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU).

In response to these needs, ECA prepared a document entitled “Policy convergence for regional economic cooperation and integration:

Implementation of the Treaty establishing the African Economic Community” for the consi-deration of the Conference of Ministers responsible for Economic and Social Develop-ment and Planning. The suggestions for con-vergence were based on a four-pronged inte-grated approach encompassing infrastructures, production, trade liberalization and policy orientation. It also stressed the need for sectoral harmonization and convergence in various fields, such as trade liberalization; free movement of goods and persons; money, finance and payments; food and agriculture; industry, science and technology, energy, natural resources and environment; environ-mental-control of toxic wastes; transport and communications; tourism; and human resources, social affairs, health and population.

ECA provided technical assistance to regional economic communities and IGOs on ways and means of furthering economic co-operation and integration and ensuring food security. In this regard, a technical cooperation programme on inter-island and coastal shipping, industry, environment and marine affairs was drawn up for the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC). ECA also prepared a framework for technical cooperation to guide the Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Desertification (IGADD) in the programming of its activities for regional cooperation/integration. Other activities geared towards the revitaliza-tion/restructuring of IGADD took place. Assistance was given to ECCAS in working out modalities for relaunching the regional economic process in Central Africa. African ACP coun-tries were assisted in negotiations for the successor Lomé Convention.

Technical assistance was also provided to African countries to enhance monetary and financial integration in Africa. This included the Commission’s contribution to efforts made towards currency convertibility in Preferential Trade Area (PTA)/Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) countries, its participation in meetings of the Association of African Development Institutions and of the Association of African Central Banks (AACB), its cooperation in a review study of the imple-mentation of COMESA and the contribution made to the meetings of the Working Group preparatory to the annual meetings of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)/World Bank group.

ECA contributed to the COMESA monetary harmonization programme. Close collaboration with PTA and SADC took place on seeking ways and means of achieving food security in Eastern and Southern Africa. Support to river basin development schemes focused on the Niger Basin Authority (NBA) and was assisted in its efforts to map out an action plan to revitalize its activities and strengthen the organization.

Assistance was also provided to sector specific subregional groups in the promotion of cooperation in specific areas of needs. Most notable among these initiatives was the study on the interconnection of Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (CEPGL) and the Kagera Basin Organization (KBO) electricity grids. The objective of the study was to demonstrate the rationale for cooperation which, among other benefits, were the realiza-tion of economies of scale and optimum utiliza-tion of electricity resources in the area. In this regard, four projects dealing with electricity interconnection were identified for implementa-tion during 1995-2001. Furthermore, consider-ing that countries of the CEPGL are land-locked some assistance was provided in the area of transport. Five studies dealing with lake/water and air transport in CEPGL and KBO countries were carried out.

African Governments have long recognized the need for a regional African institution which would specialize in regional monetary and finan-cial issues. Its primary responsibility would be to help African countries to formulate a general framework or guidelines for promoting monetary and financial integration. It was against this background that a report outlining progress towards the establishment of an African mone-tary fund was presented to the fifth session of the Conference of African Ministers of Finance, held in February 1994. The report detailed the progress achieved so far, among which was the political approval given by member States. It also underscored the need for a detail study on the technical aspects of the setting up of the Fund. Another activity in the field of monetary cooperation related to the harmonization of monetary and financial policies at the subre-gional level. A study was undertaken to assess the effectiveness of subregional financial institutions in the mobilization of resources for development.

(b) Revitalizing African domestic and external trade

Many of the lingering negative trends in Africa’s socio-economic development are partly attributed to its weak productive base and decline in the share of Africa’s export earnings. The need to revitalize measures to respond to these weaknesses is thus widely felt. This is particularly important in light of the adoption of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round of Multi-lateral Trade Negotiations, an important development at the global level, which from current analysis has the potential to affect the prospects for Africa’s recovery and growth. These new realities of intense global competi-tiveness require efficient, ample and flexible capacity that can anticipate and adjust to global market changes. In this regard, a study was undertaken by ECA to analyze the anticipated impact of the Uruguay Round Agreements on selected high priority sectors, with a view to making proposals on policy measures for helping African countries benefit from the Uruguay agreements. This study recommended measures to minimize the adverse effects and maximize the positive effects of the imple-mentation of the agreements, in the short-, medium- and long-term horizon.

The conclusions and recommendations from the impact analysis was the rallying point for discussion by the International Conference on the Uruguay Round convened in Tunis in 1994. The conference, on the basis of the analysis, adopted the “Framework for action for technical assistance to African countries within the framework of the implementation of the Uruguay Round Agreements”. The Framework among the many proposals to respond to the post-Uruguay Round challenges, those requiring immediate attention include providing the tech-nical assistance on a range of issues. Notably priority technical assistance that will be required to assist individual African countries as they set out to:

(a) Assess the domestic requirements (legal, administrative) for compliance;

(b) Assess the economic impact of the various agreements and policy implications; and

(c) The new market access conditions fac-ing their country’s trade, including barriers to trade; Agreement on the Implementation of Article VII (Customs Valuation); Agreement on Preshipment Inspection; Agreement on Trade-related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS); Understanding on the rules of proce-dures governing the settlement of disputes; and the trade policy review mechanism.

Another study was commissioned to assess Africa’s position in world commodity market and the Lomé IV Convention. The study entitled “Cooperation in the development of industrial and agricultural minerals”, identified structural weaknesses inherent to the industry and iden-tified appropriate areas for cooperation. This study was presented at a SADC workshop which adopted most of its recommendations which are expected to be used in the formu-lation of the SADC protocol for the mining sector.

(c) Strengthening intra-African trade

Intra-African trade development and promo-tion represents one of the pillars for economic integration and cooperation. Fundamental requirements for effective intra-African trade include the availability of trade information, including supply and demand, elimination of obstacles to trade, promotion of those factors such as a conducive environment that facilitate trade and the mobilization of trade operators.

The activities undertaken by the Commis-sion to strengthen intra-African trade included, among others, the following:

(a) In the Eastern and Southern Africa MULPOC subregion, a study on “Gemstones development and marketing strategies” was used as the main document for a workshop on the same topic. One important outcome of the workshop was the establishment of an African Gemstone Development Association, which held its inaugural meeting in Nairobi, in October 1995. The Association aims at fostering collec-tive interest for gemstone dealers as well as the coordination and harmonization of activities

related to gemstones through the establishment of a gemstone exchange bureau in the subregion and the holding of subregional gemstone fairs;

(b) In the West African subregion, the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc on the integration process, in particular on trade relations and promotion, were analyzed;

(c) Given the importance of agriculture for countries of the Great Lakes subregion com-posed mainly of countries of KBO, a study was undertaken on the harmonization of agricultural policies in KBO countries mainly in forestry, rural development and marketing of agricultural pro-ducts. A study on edible oil was also under-taken. According to the study, the production of edible oils could be increased if the diffi-culties related to the production, harvest, storage and technologies were removed. As a first step, farmers must be encouraged to develop new palm oil tree plantations as well as develop groundnut and soya plantations;

(d) Another area that lends itself to intra-African trade is the minerals sector. The poten-tialities of trade in minerals in the Kagera basin were also assessed. The study suggested the establishment of a data bank on exploration activities in the basin;

(e) Some activities addressed the issues of South-South cooperation both among subregions and with other countries of the south. In this context, a study on trade liberalization of domestically produced goods in the ECOWAS and COMESA subregions was undertaken with the objective of seeking ways and means of enhancing the expansion of intra-subregional trade in locally produced goods. Another study dealt with trade issues, in particular the prospects and problems of expanding South-South trade cooperation.

(d) Strengthening institutional capacity for monitoring and financial integration

The Commission provided assistance in a variety of ways to accelerate the process of monetary and financial integration in Africa. Many of the activities were implemented in

association with subregional organizations and financial institutions. The publications prepared by the Commission in this area included “Harmonization of monetary and financial policies at the subregional level” and “External trade financing techniques”. In the area of international cooperation, ECA was requested by the COMESA secretariat to coordinate, fund and assist in the preparation of a “Review study of the implementation of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa monetary harmonization programme” and presented the findings of the study to the first meeting of the COMESA Monetary and Financial Cooperation Committee and the first meeting of the COMESA Central Bank Governors, both held in Windhoek, Namibia, in November 1995.

(e) Tourism and Africa’s development

The importance of tourism as a source of revenue for financing socio-economic development programmes is widely recognized. However, its full potential in Africa is yet to be realized, despite the positive growth experienced over the years. The need to explore the contribution of tourism to Africa’s development, therefore, constituted the main thrust of ECA’s intervention and support during the biennium 1994-1995. Thus, greater emphasis was placed on mobilization of tourism resources for overall development.

In this regard, ECA’s major activity was a report which summarized various studies carried out to analyze the development of tourism in Africa with a view to making suggestions for a more effective contribution to the African integration process and the overall development of the region. The report made recom-mendations for the development of tourism at the subregional and regional levels which included measures for improvement in the airline industry, better hotel accommodation and faci-lities, increase participation of local entre-preneurs in the tourist sector, organization of Africa’s cultural heritage and development of human resources. The study also recommended the need for the establishment of mechanism for promoting tourism cooperation and integration.

POVERTY ALLEVIATION THROUGH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Africa’s continuing modest rate of economic performance, coupled with its rapid population growth and growing debt burden, have com-pounded the difficulties for governments to improve standards of living of their people. There is an equally disturbing decline in capacity of an increasing number of Africa’s population to access to food and other basic needs, includ-ing potable water and shelter.

Poverty alleviation approaches, in particular those traditional interventions such as agrarian reforms, providing subsidized goods and ser-vices and making available productive resources have already been amply documented. Far less emphasis had been given to crucial cross-sectoral linkages and synergies among food and agriculture, population, environment and human settlements. The first meeting of the Con-ference of African Ministers responsible for Sustainable Development and the Environment was convened in March 1996 under the theme “Facing the challenges of sustainable develop-ment and environment in Africa”. The Con-ference considered strategies and programmes based on the inter-relationships between agri-culture especially food supply, rural develop-ment and water resources, population, the environment and human settlements within the framework of poverty alleviation. An important outcome of the Conference was the Addis Ababa Statement on the Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa.

(a) Increasing food self-sufficiency and security in Africa

ECA activities in the areas of food and agri-culture focused on enhancing the capacity of African countries in food security policy analysis, planning and sensitizing decision makers on the need to improve the food security situation, notably through the diversification and strengthening of production, improvement in the income and diet base. To this end, measures and actions to ensure sustainable production, rational exploitation and use of conventional and non-conventional food, fishery, forestry and livestock resources and to improve delivery systems were recommended.

Several reports highlighting various aspects of food security and its effect on poverty alle-viation were prepared and presented to the first meeting of the Conference of African Ministers responsible for Sustainable Development and Environment. Among these were:

(a) A report to assess the progress made in the alleviation of poverty; and

(b) A report to promote the use and rational exploitation of non-conventional food resources as complementary sources of food for achieving food security at the level of the vulnerable households, notably in rural areas. In addition, a number of policy papers based on research on selected issues affecting food security were prepared. These papers examined issues such as alternative strategy for increased self-reliance and improved competitiveness in world market to enable Africa achieve sustain-able food security.

ECA continued to sensitize decision makers by actively participating in meetings where the opportunity to provide technical advice on issues pertaining to food security was available. It participated, for example, in:

(a) The third Presidential Forum on the Management of Science and Technology for Development in Africa held in Kampala, Uganda, at which it presented a lead paper on resolving food security in Africa which provided a strate-gic framework for basic food and nutritional security;

(b) In the Advisory Committee meeting on Mobilization of Domestic Resources, Agricultural Reform and Self-evaluation of Good Governance held in Harare, Zimbabwe, at which it presented a paper on the implications of agricultural reforms for the alleviation of rural poverty in Africa.

Meetings of the subregional IGOs were convened to review the issues of developing complementarities between bordering States to enhance their individual and collective capacity in improving the food security situations, as well as the need for maintaining the natural resources base. As inputs to these subregional reviews, ECA undertook for the Central, West, East and Southern Africa subregions in-depth studies on border food trade. These studies identified bottlenecks as well as remedial measures for ensuring the effective contribution of marketing and intra-subregional trade to improving the food security situation and, thereby, to alleviating poverty. Recom-mendations on harmonizing food production and pricing policies, the establishment of subregional information systems on food markets, the development of appropriate credit schemes for the private sector and the improvement of marketing infrastructures were endorsed by these meetings.

Other studies focused on the identification of measures for developing and maintaining the natural resources base for ensuring sustained agricultural development, the rational exploitation of natural resources for producing non-conventional foods and for other uses such as shelter and foreign exchange earnings, and on policies for improving micro watershed management and soil conservation for arid and semi-arid areas for sustained development for the North Africa subregion.

Other studies undertaken in this area included:

(a) A study on developing frameworks and guidelines for African agricultural and food security policy analysts to develop and imple-ment comprehensive food security policies and programmes at national, subregional and regional levels and on identifying critical marketing issues for consideration and inclusion in national agricultural development plans;

(b) Developing analytical tools and training manuals for use in food security policy analysis and developing database and information systems related to food security programmes and monitoring the contribution of food security in alleviating poverty;

(c) Reviewing and assessing small farmer credit programmes in Africa in the light of the experiences of other developing countries with the view to improving the contribution of credit in reducing food insecurity and poverty;

(d) On measures for strengthening co-operation for the exploitation and management of shared fishery resources and another on live-stock and food security; and

(e) On assistance to the war-shattered African countries in their post-conflicts rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts, which produced a framework for action programmes for countries devastated from war notably for Rwanda, Burundi and Mozambique.

(b) Population and sustainable development

African countries in adopting the Kilimanjaro Programme of Action and the Dakar/Ngor Declaration on Population, Family and Sustain-able Development recognized population matters as integral part of the socio-economic develop-ment process. To this end, population activities for the most part of the biennium centred on the preparatory process to the International Con-ference on Population and Development, partici-pation of Africa in the Conference and follow-up on population issues, in line with the needs of member States, as expressed in the Dakar/Ngor Declaration, the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development, 1994 (ICPD.94), the United Nations New Agenda for the Development of Africa in the 1990s (UN-NADAF) and Agenda 21.

(i) Preparation for the International Conference on Population and Development

Assisting member States to prepare for the International Conference or Population and Development (ICPD.94) was a major preoccupa-tion of the Commission. The preparatory pro-cess by African countries culminated in the adoption by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State and Government at its thirtieth ordinary session in 1994 in Tunis the “Declaration on Population and Development in Africa” endorsing the Dakar/Ngor Declaration adopted by the African Population Conference in 1992.

THE TUNIS DECLARATION ON POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

African countries in adopting the Tunis Declaration clearly:

-Affirmed their commitment to the attainment of the qualitative and quantitative targets of the Dakar/Ngor Declaration.

– Reaffirmed the need for a sustained effort in the formulation of explicit population policies and to establish and/or strengthen national institutions dealing with population issues.

-Committed themselves to reduce the current population growth rate to 2.5 per cent by the year 2000 and to 2 per cent by the year 2010, as well as to increase their budget allocations to population programmes.

-Recognized that peace, security, stability and the rule of law are necessary prerequisites for development and welfare of the African people.

-Stressed that population issues should be addressed in the wider context of socio-economic needs of African countries, including the areas of food security, health services, education and shelter and women.

(ii) Population activities

Despite the increased number of explicit population policies formulated the following situations persist: fertility is still high in most countries, mortality levels continue to rise, rural-urban migration continues. It was against this background that ECA’s population activities gave specific attention to the situational analysis of critical population-related issues such as family planning, female migration, population age structure on resource utilization, mortality, population and environment, as well as the insti-tutional arrangements for the formulation and implementation of programme.

Among the various studies carried out to provide insights into population issues and their dynamics on sustainable development were the following: a study on “Family planning targets in relation to fertility reduction and reproductive health care” was carried out to assist the increasing number of African countries currently implementing family planning programmes as a way of moderating their demographic trends and improving the socio-economic conditions of their populations. The study focused on family planning programmes targeting, in the context of reducing fertility and improving reproductive health care. The findings from the study high-lighted the following as among the factors to consider in family planning: improvement in the general socio-economic conditions; government commitment to improve reproductive health; education of the girl-child and improved status of women and poverty alleviation.

Migration issues have featured prominently in ECA’s population work. A new and emerging trend in migration in Africa relates to the increasing participation of female in migration. To better understand the phenomena, ECA undertook a study on “Patterns, causes and consequences for development planning of female migration in selected African countries”. The study, based on a regional analysis and a case study of Lesotho, Namibia and Zimbabwe, revealed that the reasons for migration range from economic (employment seeking or com-mercially motivated), marital and political, as a result of decline in agriculture, coupled with the rising levels of educated females and the economic crisis. The consequences of long-term female migration include destabilization of families, etc.

A study on “The implications of population age structure on resource utilization and social security in relation to poverty alleviation” assessed the availability of social security schemes and the implications of population age structure and resources. The study observed that existing social security benefits are limited and, for the most part, only cover such benefits as maternal and child allowances and meagre pension benefits hardly enough to sustain basic lifestyles and result in aging population having to depend on the younger population for survival, the net effect of which is a vicious circle of poverty.

The interrelationship between population and sustainable development, with particular reference to linkages among environment, urbanization and migration was the focus of another study, which explored the migra-tory/urbanization (defined to include processes such as population concentration, dispersal and displacement, refugee movements, settlement, resettlement and tourism) causes and conse-quences of environmental stress, on the one hand, and the environmental causes and con-sequences of urbanization/migration. The study provided evidence to indicate the contributory role of environmental factors such as rural population pressure, drought, famine and desertification, insect infestation and diseases, soil erosion, natural disasters, migration and refugees in the continent. Conclusions drawn from the study underscored the need for inte-grated population and environmental policies and suggested policies pertaining to decentrali-zation, popular participation and transparency to tackle some of the adverse consequences aris-ing from the interrelationships among environ-ment, migration and urbanization.

The management of effective population programmes must be anchored to institutional arrangements capable of facilitating the process of integrating population factors in development plans, as well as providing a structured environ-ment for a member State to manage its national population programme. In this respect, an evaluation of institutional arrangements for the formulation and implementation of national population programmes in Africa was under-taken. The analysis of the information revealed that the institutional structures fall into three broad groups: those for formulating a popula-tion policy, those for implementing the policy measures and those for decentralizing the latter process from the national to the sub-national levels. Furthermore, in order to foster effective integration, the institutions established should be based on clear criteria, specified terms of reference per component of the structure as well as the mode and mechanism of collabora-tion between the various components.

(c) Environment and development in Africa

The Commission adopted Africa’s Strategies for the implementation of Agenda 21 in 1993. The Strategies are based on the orientation that environmental challenges must be approached from a broader perspective – one that embraces broader development concerns. The Strategies fully recognized the linkages between environ-ment and sustainable development. Several activities were undertaken to strengthen national, subregional and regional capacities for the implementation of Agenda 21. For example, technical support was provided to IGADD in the re-orientation and revitalization of its activities on environment-related issues. Technical support was also provided to the African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD) to strengthen its operations and work programme, including mobilization of required resources.

Supporting measures to combat desertifica-tion, consistent with commitments made in rele-vant conventions was a major priority for the African region. Thus, ECA provided technical support in the various sessions of the Inter-governmental Negotiating Committee on Desertification. This assistance resulted in the adoption by African countries of a common orientation and approach to the negotiations, one in which Africa underscored the point that the problem of drought and desertification in the region was not just a technical issue; rather that desertification was a developmental problem which must be addressed from a multi-dimensional perspective. This required, for example, increased emphasis on the eradication of poverty and the development of alternative patterns of livelihood for poor communities.

(d) Issues relating to human settlements

The focus of activities in this area was related to the formulation and implementation of human settlements policies towards mitigating rural/urban imbalances in African countries and the promotion of the implementation of the Plan of Action contained in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000.

Most African countries lack an integrated approach to human settlements planning within the framework of overall socio-economic development. Development plans have not ade-quately reflected sectoral and urban/rural linkages and this has resulted in some short-comings in the development of human settle-ments, especially in rural areas. The problems are exacerbated by high population growth, rural-urban migration and low population density in rural communities.

ECA provided support to member States in tackling the challenges of human settlements, notably through providing policy orientation and proposing strategies as well as in the mobiliza-tion of resources. Special attention was paid to the need to adopt integrated systems of planning, which took adequate account of rural and urban settlements needs.

African countries’ efforts to implement the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000 was actively supported by ECA through country reviews and provision of guidelines for assisting countries to formulate policies to enhance the provision of shelter. The guidelines emphasized strategic planning and the need for concerted action by the public and private sectors in order to provide adequate shelter for all by the year 2000.

The secretariat is assisting African countries to prepare for the second United Nations Con-ference on Human Settlements (HABITAT II), scheduled to take place in Istanbul, Turkey, in 1996. In this regard, ECA has coordinated and facilitated regional activities, in particular those leading to the articulation of a continent-wide position on human settlements, the regional report on the state of human settlements in Africa and the Continental Shelter Report/Atlas as contribution to HABITAT II.